I. THE ELECTION OF 1960

    A. Candidates

        1. Republicans: Richard Nixon. VP candidate Henry Cabot Lodge

        2. Democrats: John F. Kennedy. 43 years old - youngest man elected
            to the presidency. VP candidate Lyndon B. Johnson

    B. How and Why Kennedy Beat Nixon

        1. Kennedy exploited the media. Nixon's TV image poor in TV debates.

        2. Eisenhower did not give a rousing endorsement.

        3. Met the issue of his Roman Catholicism head-on.

        4. LBJ was able to hold the white Democratic vote. Kennedy appealed
            for the black vote. He promised to sign an executive order
            forbidding segregation in federally-subsidized housing.

        5. Nixon charged that Kennedy lacked experience in foreign affairs.
            Kennedy countered by hitting hard on Cuba going Communist in 1959.
            Kennedy played on the theme that Eisenhower and Nixon had let
            American prestige and power slip. Kennedy offered Cold War
            victory and securing of Third World countries as allies.

    C. Highest voter turnout in 50 years. (62.8%) Kennedy won by a very slim
        margin. Black vote was important. Suspected vote fraud in Illinois
        and Texas could have made the difference.

    D. ** BIOGRAPHY

II. FOREIGN AFFAIRS

    A. Cold War Warrior: Kennedy's dynamic personal style was reflected in
        a bolder, more vigorous prosecution of the Cold War. Secretary of
        State Dean Rusk. Kennedy eager to prove diplomatic toughness. "Race"
        conscious: arms, space, missile, race for influence in Third World.

        1. Nikita Khrushchev responded by endorsing "wars of national
            liberation" in Third World countries.

        2. Flexible Response: Kennedy determined to fulfill campaign promise
            of a military build-up based on this principle. Ike's massive
            retaliation was replaced with the desire to meet any kind of
            warfare, from guerrilla to nuclear. Purpose was to contain both the
            USSR and Third World revolutionary movements. U.S. nuclear weapons
            increased 150% by mid-1964. Citizens were encouraged to build
            fall-out shelters.

        3. Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963): U.S. and USSR banned nuclear
            testing in the atmosphere, in outer space, and under water.

    B. Berlin Crisis (1961)

        1. USSR Demand for Negotiations to end Western occupation of
            Berlin. In 1961 Kennedy asked Congress for an additional $3.2
            billion for defense and the authority to call up reservists.

        2. Berlin Wall (August, 1961): Erected to halt the exodus of East
            Germans to West Berlin. Kennedy visited the Wall in 1963 and
            said "Ich bin ein Berliner."

    C. Crisis in Cuba

        1. Cuban Revolution (1959): Occurred during Eisenhower
            Administration. Anti-Americanism and reduction of U.S. influence
            were among the goals of the revolution. Fidel Castro and 26th.
            of July Movement ousted American ally Fulgencio Batista.

        2. American Business in Cuba: Castro sought to break the economic
            power of American business in Cuba. He nationalized some
            American-owned property, suspended promised elections, signed a
            trade treaty with the USSR in 1960. Mid-1960 Eisenhower reduced
            American purchases of Cuban sugar. Castro in turn seized many
            American-owned companies. He appealed to USSR for support. USSR
            gradually responded with loans and trade.

        3. Bay of Pigs Invasion (April, 1961): March, 1960 Ike ordered the
            CIA to train Cuban exiles for an invasion. Jan., 1961 Ike broke
            diplomatic relations with Cuba and advised his successor, Kennedy,
            to proceed with the planned invasion. The plan included the exiles
            landing at the Bay of Pigs, establishing a beachhead, the rising up
            of the Cuban people, and a Revolutionary Council organized in the
            U.S. would enter Havana in triumph. Kennedy ordered that no
            Americans be directly involved in the invasion. April, 1961 1400
            Cuban commandos landed at the Bay of Pigs. The people did not rise
            up and most of the invaders were captured. Many blamed Kennedy
            because he refused an air strike along with the land invasion. The
            entire invasion was a fiasco.

        4. Operation Mongoose: JFK and his Attorney General Robert Kennedy
            did not give up. They supported this plan which aimed to disrupt
            Cuba's trade, aid anti-Castro groups in Miami, and plot to
            assassinate Castro. The U.S. tightened an economic blockade of Cuba
            and engineered Cuba's eviction from Organization of American States.

        5. Cuban Missile Crisis (Oct.22-28, 1962): Khrushchev and Castro
            planned to install Soviet missiles and nuclear bombers at several
            sites in Cuba. October 14, 1962 a U-2 plane photographed sites for
            medium-range missiles that could reach the U.S. Kennedy organized
            the Executive Committee to find a way to remove the missiles from
            Cuba. Ideas included an air attack, a full-scale military invasion,
            and direct negotiations. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara
            advised a naval quarantine of Cuba to prevent further military
            shipments. On October 22, 1962 on national television Kennedy
            informed the Soviets of American policy and demanded their retreat.
            American warships headed for the Caribbean. B-52's loaded with
            nuclear bombs took to the skies. American military forces around
            the globe were on alert. Khrushchev demanded the the U.S. pledge
            never to attack Cuba again. He also demanded that the U.S. remove
            American Jupiter missiles from Turkey. Kennedy agreed to the first
            but rejected the second. October 28, 1962 Khrushchev gave in. The
            Soviet missiles would be shipped back to the USSR and the ones in
            Cuba would be dismantled. Kennedy informally and privately promised
            to withdraw the Jupiters from Turkey. Many said this was Kennedy's
            "finest hour." Critics question if the crisis would have occurred
            if Kennedy were not determined to overthrow Castro. Did Kennedy
            needlessly risk doomsday?

    D. Hot Line: Some relaxation in Soviet-American relations. The "hot
        line" was installed connecting Washington and Moscow.

    E. Third World Countries: In Third World Kennedy called for "peaceful
        revolution" and "Nation Building." Kennedy offered American help
        through the infant stages of nationhood with programs for improving
        agriculture, transportation, communications.

        1. Alliance for Progress in Latin America. It was a $100 billion
            program for economic and social development. It was formally
            inaugurated on Aug. 17, 1961 by a treaty between the United States
            and 19 Latin American countries, excluding Cuba. The original 10-
            year treaty was extended indefinitely in 1965, but operations ceased
            in 1974, when financial support was discontinued. Although some
            accomplishments were achieved the program generally failed to meet
            its expectations.

        2. Peace Corps (1961) sent teachers, agricultural specialists, and
            health workers into developing nations. Humanitarian goals combined
            with alignment with American foreign policy. Any U. S. citizen over
            the age of 18 may volunteer for the Peace Corps. The normal tour of
            duty, after training, is two years. Since 1961 the Corps has sent
            more than 135,000 volunteers to more than 100 countries.

        3. Counterinsurgency: training of native troops and police forces by
            American military and technical advisers. Belief that American
            soldiers, especially Special Forces units like the Green Berets,
            would provide a protective shield against insurgents while American
            civilian personnel worked on economic projects.

        4. Counterinsurgency and nation building were failures.

    F. CIA Interventions

        1. Congo (1960-61): plot to poison Premier Patrice Lamumba but he
            was killed by a CIA-backed Congolese political faction after he had
            turned to the USSR for help after Belgians and UN sent troops to
            protect white Europeans during a civil war.

        2. Brazil $20 million to influence 1962 elections against President
            Joao Goulart who had expropriated IT&T property and refused to
            vote to oust Cuba from the OAS. When Goulart's followers won the
            CIA helped organize opposition groups. With US support, the
            Brazilian military overthrew Goulart in 1964.

    G. Vietnam

III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS

    A. Style and Image: Kennedy was the first president born in the 20th.
        century. He was young (43), handsome, intelligent, and energetic. He
        was a patron of the arts. Kennedy was born into a wealthy and
        influential family. Kennedy's grandfather had been mayor of Boston.
        His father, Joseph Kennedy, was ambassador to Great Britain. Kennedy
        was a war hero in WWII. Kennedy supported the Democratic tradition
        of commitment to America's welfare system.

    B. "The Best and the Brightest": Kennedy surrounded himself with
        young, bright men who claimed they had fresh ideas to invigorate the
        nation. Kennedy appointed only one woman to a significant position.

    C. New Frontier: Promised an end to racial discrimination; federal aid
        to farmers, federal aid to education, medical care for the elderly,
        government action to halt the recession.

        1. Some feared Kennedy would try to give aid to parochial schools. As
            a result federal aid to education was defeated. Also defeated was a
            Kennedy-sponsored increase in the minimum wage. Kennedy was not
            able to move Congress, which was controlled by a conservative
            coalition of Republicans and southern Democrats.

        2. Kennedy did not actively pursue civil rights.

IV. ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT KENNEDY (November 22, 1963)

    A. Lee Harvey Oswald, accused assassin, was killed by Jack Ruby on
        November 25, 1963.

    B. Question: Did Oswald kill Kennedy? Did he act alone or was he part of
        a conspiracy?

V. KENNEDY'S PRESIDENTIAL LEGACY

    A. Kennedy inspired idealism. His Inaugural Address "Ask not what your
        country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country" set the
        tone.

    B. Kennedy created a sense of national purpose through his vigorous
        support of the space program.

        1. Feb. 20, 1962 John Glenn orbited the earth.

        2. Kennedy challenged the nation to put a man on the moon by the end
            of the decade.

    C. Jacqueline Kennedy said that for her the Kennedy era evoked the
        image of Camelot.

    D. In death, Kennedy was able to accomplish more than in life. Johnson
        was able to push almost the whole New Frontier program through Congress